These steep electric potential gradients are the reason for the importance of the DLs.
2.
This creates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
3.
The most effective distance between electrodes occurs at an electric potential gradient of about 10 kV / cm, which is just below the nominal breakdown voltage of air between two sharp points, at a current density level usually referred to as the saturated corona current condition.
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